Content Note: This story contains the use of the E-word, a descriptor which was historically used by non-Inuit to describe Inuit, but is now considered a racial slur. We have chosen to keep it in when it is used in the proper name of an organization to reflect the reality of the time.
Across Canada Inuit art is often promoted and marketed by co-operatives. These co-ops were created across the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Nunavik. Today, there are 47 Inuit co-operatives across these regions. They act as central hubs that provide essential services and stock basic necessities for communities, like selling harvesting supplies and groceries; they also buy artworks directly from artists. Artists take completed works to the co-ops to be seen by the manager, and if the manager is interested, they buy the work up front, then a number of works by various artists are sent to wholesalers in the South.
The impetus for the creation of the first Inuit-owned and operated co-operatives was twofold: community members saw the need for an Inuit-led system that could compete with the Hudson’s Bay Company stores, and they wanted their own income stream from the rising popularity of Inuit art, which started around 1948 when artist James Houston, OC, travelled to Inukjuak, Nunavik, QC, and was impressed by the artistic skills of local stone sculptors. Artist Conlucy Nayoumealook presented Houston with a small caribou sculpture, and this sparked his interest in the art form, eventually resulting in a landmark exhibition at the Canadian Handicrafts Guild in Montreal, QC. The sculptures were so popular that Houston was hired by the Guild and later the Canadian federal government to travel to a number of Inuit communities to figure out how Inuit art could become a viable economic development opportunity. “This small image of a caribou opened the way for Inuit to build our own economy,” said Saroillie Weetaluktuk in the webisode “Carving for Survival” from the film Atautsikut/Leaving None Behind (2019) by John Houston. [1]
Levi Qumaluk Mother and Child with Fish (c. 1989) steatite 33 x 15.2 x 512.7 cm COURTESY IAF © THE ARTIST
In 1959, in the community of Kangiqsualujjuaq, Nunavik, QC, the first Inuit-led co-operative was formed specifically for commercial fishing. Within two years five more co-ops were formed by community members in the settlements of Kuujjuaq, Kangirsuk, Puvirnituq, Kuujjuaraapik, and Killiniq (previously Port Burwell), which is on the tip of the Labrador Peninsula and was then a part of the NWT, now Nunavut. [2] Co-ops were established to provide household necessities, but they began buying sculptures as well.
In the 1950s and ’60s, the role of the co-ops in relation to art selling was especially important because of communication challenges and the remote nature of Inuit communities. Many artists were unilingual Inuktitut speakers or were not comfortable speaking in English. Most were also unfamiliar with the southern art market and how it worked. Because of the vast distances and lack of communication infrastructure, most artists did not have the opportunity to speak directly with gallery owners or buyers, so the co-op managers and wholesalers would often convey information about an artist and their work. The co-operatives would buy the artists’ works, gather an artist’s information, and ship the artworks to central locations further south. The co-op managers often acted as quality control and had the ability to influence the work artists produced. If a certain subject matter wasn’t selling as well in galleries, for example, less of those sculptures would be purchased, and in turn, the artist wouldn’t bring as many sculptures with that theme to the co-op for consideration. Seal-hunting scenes, for example, seemed to be popular in earlier years, but they seem to have been replaced with the iconic dancing bears and inuksuit. Animal rights groups staged large-scale protests against the commercial seal hunt in the late 1970s, which may have influenced a shift away from seal sculptures in the commercial market.
Agnes Nanogak Goose Two Decoys (1985) COURTESY IAF © THE ARTIST
Inspired by the first economic and governance successes in Nunavik, other Inuit communities soon followed suit. The co-operative movement eventually spread across what was then the Northwest Territories and northern Quebec from the 1950s to the 1970s. By 1990, there were several dozen co-operatives in the Northwest Territories, which included what is now Nunavut, and Quebec. [3] As with the first non-art focused co-operatives, these locations served a multitude of purposes, providing social services, for example, as well as the upfront purchase of artworks for sale to wholesalers. In the webisode “We’re Not Terrified Any More” of Atautsikut/Leaving None Behind, Kangiqsujuaq Lucassie Napaluk says, “It’s people helping one another, the co-operative.” [4] The establishment of Inuit-owned co-ops eliminated the fear of being abandoned by the fur trading companies such as the Hudson’s Bay Company.
Kananginak Pootoogook Walrus on Ice (1958) Stonecut 22.9 x 27.9 cm COURTESY FIRST ARTS © THE ARTIST
In 1959, James Houston helped establish what would become the West Baffin Eskimo Co-op, now the Kinngait Co-Operative, in Kinngait, NU, with Inuk artist Kananginak Pootoogook, RCA (1935–2010), as a way to support art-making as a revenue stream. [5] The co-op bought sculptures and supported the activities of the now-famous print studio. Houston first hired Pootoogook to do odd jobs around the government buildings. Pootoogook’s father Josephie Pootoogook was an artist, and Kananginak Pootoogook would bring his father’s designs to the print shop to be printed. Houston brought him on as a student and taught him the skills he needed to later become a master printmaker. In 1978 Kinngait Studios’ wholesale flagship Dorset Fine Arts (DFA) opened in Toronto, ON. DFA releases an annual print catalogue, a tradition the co-op began in 1959, and also represents other visual artists from the community.
Helen Kalvak Dance (1977) Stonecut 50.8 × 76.2 cm COURTESY WADDINGTON'S AUCTIONEERS AND APPRAISERS, TORONTO © THE ARTIST
With the introduction of printmaking to Inuit communities, co-operatives across the North began opening print shops. Nunavik’s first co-operative was opened in Puvirnituq, Nunavik, QC, in 1960, with sculptor Charlie Sivuarapik (1911–1968) as its first president. The co-op was initially known for sculptures before branching out with the creation of the print shop. The co-op became known for stonecut prints and released its first collection in 1962. [6] The Holman Eskimo Co-operative, now the Ulukhaktok Arts Centre, opened in Ulukhaktok, Inuvialuit Settlement Region, NT, in 1961 and became known for stencil prints. [7] The Sanavik Co-operative in Qamani’tuaq (Baker Lake), NU, opened in 1972 and produced stonecuts. The co-op in Panniqtuuq, NU, became known for weaving and textile work, as well as stencil prints developed at the Uqqurmiut Centre for Arts & Crafts established in 1991.
Charlie Sivuarapik Hunter Struggling with Seal (c. 1950) COURTESY WADDINGTON’S AUCTIONEERS AND APPRAISERS, TORONTO © THE ARTIST
The co-op system was also central to the use of the Canadian Eskimo Art and Design (CEAAD) mark, later known as the “Igloo Tag,” registered by the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development in 1958 to battle the sale of mass-produced imitation Inuit art. The co-operatives were already functioning as informal authenticators through their one-on-one interactions with artists in the communities, so it made sense that La Fédération des coopératives du Nouveau-Québec (FCNQ), Canadian Arctic Producers (CAP), and the West Baffin Eskimo Co-operative were included in the first group of licensees. [8] This “mark of authenticity” was attached to the bottom of sculptures and included the name, home community of the artist, and the number of the licensee. But it wasn’t until 2018 that Lori Idlout, the owner of Iqaluit’s Carvings Nunavut, became the first Inuk licensed to issue the Igloo Tag Trademark.
John Terriak Faces of the Mountains (2000) COURTESY IAF © THE ARTIST
While the co-operative system was developing in most regions of Inuit Nunangat, it’s important to note that this wasn’t the case in Nunatsiavut. It was finding its way as the mainland portion of Canada’s newest province of Newfoundland. As Dr. Heather Igloliorte explains in her article “The Intertwined History of Politics and Art in Nunatsiavut,” the government of Newfoundland refused to allow federal jurisdiction over the Indigenous people of the province, meaning that Inuit artists in northern Labrador received no support from the federal government in their efforts to build the Inuit art economy. In the 1980s the Newfoundland government acknowledged the validity of the Labrador Inuit Association’s land claim, which brought attention to the unique culture of that region. In 1991 the Inuit Art Foundation organized workshops that brought together Inuit sculptors from Labrador, Nunavik, and Nunavut, as well as inviting Labrador artists to workshops in Ottawa and Vermont. Shortly after, sculptor and printmaker Gilbert Hay of Nain, Nunantsiavut, NL, became a member of the IAF board of directors. In the late 1980s representatives from Indian and Northern Affairs Canada travelled to Nunatsiavut to interview artists, undertaking the first survey of Inuit artists in the region. There is still no co-operative system in the region, so most artists there sell directly to galleries or collectors.
Jessie Oonark Playing With My Grandchildren (1981) Stonecut 55.9 x 74.9 cm COURTESY IAF © THE ARTIST
Another large portion of Inuit that is not served by the co-operative system is the urban population. According to the 2021 census, roughly 30 percent of Inuit now live outside Inuit Nunangat, with 15 percent living in urban locations. [9] Social supports are provided by regional Inuit organizations, like Tungasuvvingat Inuit, but no organized arts marketing and distribution is provided. However, because of their proximity to large urban centres in the South, many artists sell directly to the public or work directly with retail galleries. A main advantage of this is that they can ask for a larger percentage of the retail price, but the disadvantage is the lack of support, especially in pricing and promoting their work.
The co-operative system is still an important component of the Inuit art sales system, but direct sales and the use of online platforms are becoming more popular. In 2018, sales to wholesalers and retail spaces, including co-operatives, accounted for 7.9 percent of sales, and direct-to-consumer sales accounted for 92.2 percent, with online sales being an important marketing channel. Between 2016 and 2018, for Inuit artists, there was a 25.3 percent increase in direct sales. [10] Generally, it seems that the more cultural arts such as sewing, jewellery making, and tool-making have found a significant market online, whereas larger sculptures, paintings, and prints are sold through galleries. Smaller pieces created by lesser-known artists are being bought by co-ops. With the realities of a shifting population and the emergence of new ways of marketing and selling Inuit art, it will be interesting to see how the role of co-ops will evolve in the future.
Heather Campbell is an Inuk artist and curator originally from Rigolet, Nunatsiavut, NL, currently based in North West River, NL. She has a BFA from Memorial University of Newfoundland. She has worked in the Inuit arts and culture sector, mainly in Ottawa, ON, for over 25 years.
Notes
1 Atautsikut/Leaving None Behind, “‘Carving For Survival’ – Saroillie Weetaluktuk,” directed by John Houston, June 23, 2021, leavingnonebehind.com/webisodes/.
2 “History of the Federation,” FCNQ-Ilagiisaq, fcnq.ca/en/about/.
3 Marybelle Mitchell, “The Eskimo Art Business,” Inuit Art Quarterly, Fall/Winter 1990/1991.
4 Atautsikut/Leaving None Behind, “‘We’re Not Terrified Any More’ – Lucassie Napaluk,” directed by John Houston, June 23, 2021, leavingnonebehind.com/webisodes/.
5 Jennifer Alsop with Ian McPherson, “History of Cape Dorset and the West Baffin Co-operative,” Working Paper, University of Victoria, May 1, 2010, dorsetfinearts.com/history-of-wbec.
6 “Povungnituk Print Making,” Katilvik, katilvik.com/articles/povungnituk-print-making/.
7 Lisa Alikamik, “Ulukhaktok: Carrying Cultural Memory,” Inuit Art Quarterly, November 18, 2019, inuitartfoundation.org/inuit-art-quarterly/iaq-online/ulukhaktok-carrying-cultural-memory.
8 Leslie Boyd, “The History of the Igloo Tag,” Inuit Art Quarterly, June 1, 2020, inuitartfoundation.org/inuit-art-quarterly/iaq-online/what-the-igloo-tag-means-for-inuit-artists.
9 “First Nations people, Inuit, and Métis in Canada,” Statistics Canada, last modified September 21, 2022, www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-627-m/11-627-m2022057-eng.htm.
10 Big River Analytics, The Economic Impacts of Indigenous Art in Canada, 2020, niedb-cndea.ca/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/Economic-Impacts-of-Indigenous-Art-in-Canada-2020.pdf.